Python Documentation contents¶
- What’s New in Python- What’s New in Python 2.7- The Future for Python 2.x
- Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings
- Python 3.1 Features
- PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections
- PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator
- PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines
- PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging
- PEP 3106: Dictionary Views
- PEP 3137: The memoryview Object
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.7
- New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases- Two new environment variables for debug mode
- PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches
- PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7
- PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7
- PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients
- PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7
- New make regen-allbuild target
- Removal of make touchbuild target
 
- Acknowledgements
 
- What’s New in Python 2.6- Python 3.0
- Changes to the Development Process
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
- PEP 370: Per-user site-packagesDirectory
- PEP 371: The multiprocessingPackage
- PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
- PEP 3105: printAs a Function
- PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
- PEP 3112: Byte Literals
- PEP 3116: New I/O Library
- PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
- PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
- PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
- PEP 3129: Class Decorators
- PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
- Other Language Changes
- New and Improved Modules
- Deprecations and Removals
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.6
- Acknowledgements
 
- What’s New in Python 2.5- PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
- PEP 309: Partial Function Application
- PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
- PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
- PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
- PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
- PEP 342: New Generator Features
- PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
- PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
- PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
- PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Removed Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.5
- Acknowledgements
 
- What’s New in Python 2.4- PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 289: Generator Expressions
- PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
- PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
- PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
- PEP 324: New subprocess Module
- PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
- PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
- PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Build and C API Changes
- Porting to Python 2.4
- Acknowledgements
 
- What’s New in Python 2.3- PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
- PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
- PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
- PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
- PEP 279: enumerate()
- PEP 282: The logging Package
- PEP 285: A Boolean Type
- PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
- PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
- PEP 302: New Import Hooks
- PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
- PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
- Extended Slices
- Other Language Changes
- New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
- Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
- Build and C API Changes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Porting to Python 2.3
- Acknowledgements
 
- What’s New in Python 2.2- Introduction
- PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
- PEP 234: Iterators
- PEP 255: Simple Generators
- PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
- PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
- Unicode Changes
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- New and Improved Modules
- Interpreter Changes and Fixes
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
 
- What’s New in Python 2.1- Introduction
- PEP 227: Nested Scopes
- PEP 236: __future__ Directives
- PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
- PEP 230: Warning Framework
- PEP 229: New Build System
- PEP 205: Weak References
- PEP 232: Function Attributes
- PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
- PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
- PEP 208: New Coercion Model
- PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
- New and Improved Modules
- Other Changes and Fixes
- Acknowledgements
 
- What’s New in Python 2.0- Introduction
- What About Python 1.6?
- New Development Process
- Unicode
- List Comprehensions
- Augmented Assignment
- String Methods
- Garbage Collection of Cycles
- Other Core Changes
- Porting to 2.0
- Extending/Embedding Changes
- Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
- XML Modules
- Module changes
- New modules
- IDLE Improvements
- Deleted and Deprecated Modules
- Acknowledgements
 
 
- What’s New in Python 2.7
- The Python Tutorial- 1. Whetting Your Appetite
- 2. Using the Python Interpreter
- 3. An Informal Introduction to Python
- 4. More Control Flow Tools
- 5. Data Structures
- 6. Modules
- 7. Input and Output
- 8. Errors and Exceptions
- 9. Classes
- 10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library- 10.1. Operating System Interface
- 10.2. File Wildcards
- 10.3. Command Line Arguments
- 10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination
- 10.5. String Pattern Matching
- 10.6. Mathematics
- 10.7. Internet Access
- 10.8. Dates and Times
- 10.9. Data Compression
- 10.10. Performance Measurement
- 10.11. Quality Control
- 10.12. Batteries Included
 
- 11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II
- 12. What Now?
- 13. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
- 14. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
- 15. Appendix
 
- Python Setup and Usage
- The Python Language Reference- 1. Introduction
- 2. Lexical analysis
- 3. Data model- 3.1. Objects, values and types
- 3.2. The standard type hierarchy
- 3.3. New-style and classic classes
- 3.4. Special method names- 3.4.1. Basic customization
- 3.4.2. Customizing attribute access
- 3.4.3. Customizing class creation
- 3.4.4. Customizing instance and subclass checks
- 3.4.5. Emulating callable objects
- 3.4.6. Emulating container types
- 3.4.7. Additional methods for emulation of sequence types
- 3.4.8. Emulating numeric types
- 3.4.9. Coercion rules
- 3.4.10. With Statement Context Managers
- 3.4.11. Special method lookup for old-style classes
- 3.4.12. Special method lookup for new-style classes
 
 
- 4. Execution model
- 5. Expressions- 5.1. Arithmetic conversions
- 5.2. Atoms
- 5.3. Primaries
- 5.4. The power operator
- 5.5. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
- 5.6. Binary arithmetic operations
- 5.7. Shifting operations
- 5.8. Binary bitwise operations
- 5.9. Comparisons
- 5.10. Boolean operations
- 5.11. Conditional Expressions
- 5.12. Lambdas
- 5.13. Expression lists
- 5.14. Evaluation order
- 5.15. Operator precedence
 
- 6. Simple statements- 6.1. Expression statements
- 6.2. Assignment statements
- 6.3. The assertstatement
- 6.4. The passstatement
- 6.5. The delstatement
- 6.6. The printstatement
- 6.7. The returnstatement
- 6.8. The yieldstatement
- 6.9. The raisestatement
- 6.10. The breakstatement
- 6.11. The continuestatement
- 6.12. The importstatement
- 6.13. The globalstatement
- 6.14. The execstatement
 
- 7. Compound statements
- 8. Top-level components
- 9. Full Grammar specification
 
- The Python Standard Library- 1. Introduction
- 2. Built-in Functions
- 3. Non-essential Built-in Functions
- 4. Built-in Constants
- 5. Built-in Types- 5.1. Truth Value Testing
- 5.2. Boolean Operations — and,or,not
- 5.3. Comparisons
- 5.4. Numeric Types — int,float,long,complex
- 5.5. Iterator Types
- 5.6. Sequence Types — str,unicode,list,tuple,bytearray,buffer,xrange
- 5.7. Set Types — set,frozenset
- 5.8. Mapping Types — dict
- 5.9. File Objects
- 5.10. memoryview type
- 5.11. Context Manager Types
- 5.12. Other Built-in Types
- 5.13. Special Attributes
 
- 6. Built-in Exceptions
- 7. String Services- 7.1. string— Common string operations
- 7.2. re— Regular expression operations
- 7.3. struct— Interpret strings as packed binary data
- 7.4. difflib— Helpers for computing deltas
- 7.5. StringIO— Read and write strings as files
- 7.6. cStringIO— Faster version ofStringIO
- 7.7. textwrap— Text wrapping and filling
- 7.8. codecs— Codec registry and base classes
- 7.9. unicodedata— Unicode Database
- 7.10. stringprep— Internet String Preparation
- 7.11. fpformat— Floating point conversions
 
- 7.1. 
- 8. Data Types- 8.1. datetime— Basic date and time types
- 8.2. calendar— General calendar-related functions
- 8.3. collections— High-performance container datatypes
- 8.4. heapq— Heap queue algorithm
- 8.5. bisect— Array bisection algorithm
- 8.6. array— Efficient arrays of numeric values
- 8.7. sets— Unordered collections of unique elements
- 8.8. sched— Event scheduler
- 8.9. mutex— Mutual exclusion support
- 8.10. Queue— A synchronized queue class
- 8.11. weakref— Weak references
- 8.12. UserDict— Class wrapper for dictionary objects
- 8.13. UserList— Class wrapper for list objects
- 8.14. UserString— Class wrapper for string objects
- 8.15. types— Names for built-in types
- 8.16. new— Creation of runtime internal objects
- 8.17. copy— Shallow and deep copy operations
- 8.18. pprint— Data pretty printer
- 8.19. repr— Alternaterepr()implementation
 
- 8.1. 
- 9. Numeric and Mathematical Modules- 9.1. numbers— Numeric abstract base classes
- 9.2. math— Mathematical functions
- 9.3. cmath— Mathematical functions for complex numbers
- 9.4. decimal— Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic
- 9.5. fractions— Rational numbers
- 9.6. random— Generate pseudo-random numbers
- 9.7. itertools— Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
- 9.8. functools— Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects
- 9.9. operator— Standard operators as functions
 
- 9.1. 
- 10. File and Directory Access- 10.1. os.path— Common pathname manipulations
- 10.2. fileinput— Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
- 10.3. stat— Interpretingstat()results
- 10.4. statvfs— Constants used withos.statvfs()
- 10.5. filecmp— File and Directory Comparisons
- 10.6. tempfile— Generate temporary files and directories
- 10.7. glob— Unix style pathname pattern expansion
- 10.8. fnmatch— Unix filename pattern matching
- 10.9. linecache— Random access to text lines
- 10.10. shutil— High-level file operations
- 10.11. dircache— Cached directory listings
- 10.12. macpath— Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions
 
- 10.1. 
- 11. Data Persistence- 11.1. pickle— Python object serialization
- 11.2. cPickle— A fasterpickle
- 11.3. copy_reg— Registerpicklesupport functions
- 11.4. shelve— Python object persistence
- 11.5. marshal— Internal Python object serialization
- 11.6. anydbm— Generic access to DBM-style databases
- 11.7. whichdb— Guess which DBM module created a database
- 11.8. dbm— Simple “database” interface
- 11.9. gdbm— GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm
- 11.10. dbhash— DBM-style interface to the BSD database library
- 11.11. bsddb— Interface to Berkeley DB library
- 11.12. dumbdbm— Portable DBM implementation
- 11.13. sqlite3— DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
 
- 11.1. 
- 12. Data Compression and Archiving
- 13. File Formats
- 14. Cryptographic Services
- 15. Generic Operating System Services- 15.1. os— Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
- 15.2. io— Core tools for working with streams
- 15.3. time— Time access and conversions
- 15.4. argparse— Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands
- 15.5. optparse— Parser for command line options- 15.5.1. Background
- 15.5.2. Tutorial
- 15.5.3. Reference Guide- 15.5.3.1. Creating the parser
- 15.5.3.2. Populating the parser
- 15.5.3.3. Defining options
- 15.5.3.4. Option attributes
- 15.5.3.5. Standard option actions
- 15.5.3.6. Standard option types
- 15.5.3.7. Parsing arguments
- 15.5.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser
- 15.5.3.9. Conflicts between options
- 15.5.3.10. Cleanup
- 15.5.3.11. Other methods
 
- 15.5.4. Option Callbacks- 15.5.4.1. Defining a callback option
- 15.5.4.2. How callbacks are called
- 15.5.4.3. Raising errors in a callback
- 15.5.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback
- 15.5.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order
- 15.5.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
- 15.5.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
- 15.5.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments
- 15.5.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments
 
- 15.5.5. Extending optparse
 
- 15.6. getopt— C-style parser for command line options
- 15.7. logging— Logging facility for Python- 15.7.1. Logger Objects
- 15.7.2. Logging Levels
- 15.7.3. Handler Objects
- 15.7.4. Formatter Objects
- 15.7.5. Filter Objects
- 15.7.6. LogRecord Objects
- 15.7.7. LogRecord attributes
- 15.7.8. LoggerAdapter Objects
- 15.7.9. Thread Safety
- 15.7.10. Module-Level Functions
- 15.7.11. Integration with the warnings module
 
- 15.8. logging.config— Logging configuration
- 15.9. logging.handlers— Logging handlers- 15.9.1. StreamHandler
- 15.9.2. FileHandler
- 15.9.3. NullHandler
- 15.9.4. WatchedFileHandler
- 15.9.5. RotatingFileHandler
- 15.9.6. TimedRotatingFileHandler
- 15.9.7. SocketHandler
- 15.9.8. DatagramHandler
- 15.9.9. SysLogHandler
- 15.9.10. NTEventLogHandler
- 15.9.11. SMTPHandler
- 15.9.12. MemoryHandler
- 15.9.13. HTTPHandler
 
- 15.10. getpass— Portable password input
- 15.11. curses— Terminal handling for character-cell displays
- 15.12. curses.textpad— Text input widget for curses programs
- 15.13. curses.ascii— Utilities for ASCII characters
- 15.14. curses.panel— A panel stack extension for curses
- 15.15. platform— Access to underlying platform’s identifying data
- 15.16. errno— Standard errno system symbols
- 15.17. ctypes— A foreign function library for Python- 15.17.1. ctypes tutorial- 15.17.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries
- 15.17.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls
- 15.17.1.3. Calling functions
- 15.17.1.4. Fundamental data types
- 15.17.1.5. Calling functions, continued
- 15.17.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types
- 15.17.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
- 15.17.1.8. Return types
- 15.17.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
- 15.17.1.10. Structures and unions
- 15.17.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order
- 15.17.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions
- 15.17.1.13. Arrays
- 15.17.1.14. Pointers
- 15.17.1.15. Type conversions
- 15.17.1.16. Incomplete Types
- 15.17.1.17. Callback functions
- 15.17.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls
- 15.17.1.19. Surprises
- 15.17.1.20. Variable-sized data types
 
- 15.17.2. ctypes reference
 
- 15.17.1. ctypes tutorial
 
- 15.1. 
- 16. Optional Operating System Services- 16.1. select— Waiting for I/O completion
- 16.2. threading— Higher-level threading interface
- 16.3. thread— Multiple threads of control
- 16.4. dummy_threading— Drop-in replacement for thethreadingmodule
- 16.5. dummy_thread— Drop-in replacement for thethreadmodule
- 16.6. multiprocessing— Process-based “threading” interface- 16.6.1. Introduction
- 16.6.2. Reference- 16.6.2.1. Processand exceptions
- 16.6.2.2. Pipes and Queues
- 16.6.2.3. Miscellaneous
- 16.6.2.4. Connection Objects
- 16.6.2.5. Synchronization primitives
- 16.6.2.6. Shared ctypesObjects
- 16.6.2.7. Managers
- 16.6.2.8. Proxy Objects
- 16.6.2.9. Process Pools
- 16.6.2.10. Listeners and Clients
- 16.6.2.11. Authentication keys
- 16.6.2.12. Logging
- 16.6.2.13. The multiprocessing.dummymodule
 
- 16.6.2.1. 
- 16.6.3. Programming guidelines
- 16.6.4. Examples
 
- 16.7. mmap— Memory-mapped file support
- 16.8. readline— GNU readline interface
- 16.9. rlcompleter— Completion function for GNU readline
 
- 16.1. 
- 17. Interprocess Communication and Networking- 17.1. subprocess— Subprocess management
- 17.2. socket— Low-level networking interface
- 17.3. ssl— TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects
- 17.4. signal— Set handlers for asynchronous events
- 17.5. popen2— Subprocesses with accessible I/O streams
- 17.6. asyncore— Asynchronous socket handler
- 17.7. asynchat— Asynchronous socket command/response handler
 
- 17.1. 
- 18. Internet Data Handling- 18.1. email— An email and MIME handling package- 18.1.1. email.message: Representing an email message
- 18.1.2. email.parser: Parsing email messages
- 18.1.3. email.generator: Generating MIME documents
- 18.1.4. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
- 18.1.5. email.header: Internationalized headers
- 18.1.6. email.charset: Representing character sets
- 18.1.7. email.encoders: Encoders
- 18.1.8. email.errors: Exception and Defect classes
- 18.1.9. email.utils: Miscellaneous utilities
- 18.1.10. email.iterators: Iterators
- 18.1.11. email: Examples
- 18.1.12. Package History
- 18.1.13. Differences from mimelib
 
- 18.1.1. 
- 18.2. json— JSON encoder and decoder
- 18.3. mailcap— Mailcap file handling
- 18.4. mailbox— Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
- 18.5. mhlib— Access to MH mailboxes
- 18.6. mimetools— Tools for parsing MIME messages
- 18.7. mimetypes— Map filenames to MIME types
- 18.8. MimeWriter— Generic MIME file writer
- 18.9. mimify— MIME processing of mail messages
- 18.10. multifile— Support for files containing distinct parts
- 18.11. rfc822— Parse RFC 2822 mail headers
- 18.12. base64— RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings
- 18.13. binhex— Encode and decode binhex4 files
- 18.14. binascii— Convert between binary and ASCII
- 18.15. quopri— Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
- 18.16. uu— Encode and decode uuencode files
 
- 18.1. 
- 19. Structured Markup Processing Tools- 19.1. HTMLParser— Simple HTML and XHTML parser
- 19.2. sgmllib— Simple SGML parser
- 19.3. htmllib— A parser for HTML documents
- 19.4. htmlentitydefs— Definitions of HTML general entities
- 19.5. XML Processing Modules
- 19.6. XML vulnerabilities
- 19.7. xml.etree.ElementTree— The ElementTree XML API
- 19.8. xml.dom— The Document Object Model API- 19.8.1. Module Contents
- 19.8.2. Objects in the DOM- 19.8.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects
- 19.8.2.2. Node Objects
- 19.8.2.3. NodeList Objects
- 19.8.2.4. DocumentType Objects
- 19.8.2.5. Document Objects
- 19.8.2.6. Element Objects
- 19.8.2.7. Attr Objects
- 19.8.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects
- 19.8.2.9. Comment Objects
- 19.8.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects
- 19.8.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects
- 19.8.2.12. Exceptions
 
- 19.8.3. Conformance
 
- 19.9. xml.dom.minidom— Minimal DOM implementation
- 19.10. xml.dom.pulldom— Support for building partial DOM trees
- 19.11. xml.sax— Support for SAX2 parsers
- 19.12. xml.sax.handler— Base classes for SAX handlers
- 19.13. xml.sax.saxutils— SAX Utilities
- 19.14. xml.sax.xmlreader— Interface for XML parsers
- 19.15. xml.parsers.expat— Fast XML parsing using Expat
 
- 19.1. 
- 20. Internet Protocols and Support- 20.1. webbrowser— Convenient Web-browser controller
- 20.2. cgi— Common Gateway Interface support- 20.2.1. Introduction
- 20.2.2. Using the cgi module
- 20.2.3. Higher Level Interface
- 20.2.4. Old classes
- 20.2.5. Functions
- 20.2.6. Caring about security
- 20.2.7. Installing your CGI script on a Unix system
- 20.2.8. Testing your CGI script
- 20.2.9. Debugging CGI scripts
- 20.2.10. Common problems and solutions
 
- 20.3. cgitb— Traceback manager for CGI scripts
- 20.4. wsgiref— WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
- 20.5. urllib— Open arbitrary resources by URL
- 20.6. urllib2— extensible library for opening URLs- 20.6.1. Request Objects
- 20.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects
- 20.6.3. BaseHandler Objects
- 20.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
- 20.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
- 20.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects
- 20.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
- 20.6.8. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 20.6.9. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 20.6.10. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
- 20.6.11. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 20.6.12. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 20.6.13. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
- 20.6.14. HTTPHandler Objects
- 20.6.15. HTTPSHandler Objects
- 20.6.16. FileHandler Objects
- 20.6.17. FTPHandler Objects
- 20.6.18. CacheFTPHandler Objects
- 20.6.19. UnknownHandler Objects
- 20.6.20. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
- 20.6.21. Examples
 
- 20.7. httplib— HTTP protocol client
- 20.8. ftplib— FTP protocol client
- 20.9. poplib— POP3 protocol client
- 20.10. imaplib— IMAP4 protocol client
- 20.11. nntplib— NNTP protocol client
- 20.12. smtplib— SMTP protocol client
- 20.13. smtpd— SMTP Server
- 20.14. telnetlib— Telnet client
- 20.15. uuid— UUID objects according to RFC 4122
- 20.16. urlparse— Parse URLs into components
- 20.17. SocketServer— A framework for network servers
- 20.18. BaseHTTPServer— Basic HTTP server
- 20.19. SimpleHTTPServer— Simple HTTP request handler
- 20.20. CGIHTTPServer— CGI-capable HTTP request handler
- 20.21. cookielib— Cookie handling for HTTP clients
- 20.22. Cookie— HTTP state management
- 20.23. xmlrpclib— XML-RPC client access
- 20.24. SimpleXMLRPCServer— Basic XML-RPC server
- 20.25. DocXMLRPCServer— Self-documenting XML-RPC server
 
- 20.1. 
- 21. Multimedia Services- 21.1. audioop— Manipulate raw audio data
- 21.2. imageop— Manipulate raw image data
- 21.3. aifc— Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
- 21.4. sunau— Read and write Sun AU files
- 21.5. wave— Read and write WAV files
- 21.6. chunk— Read IFF chunked data
- 21.7. colorsys— Conversions between color systems
- 21.8. imghdr— Determine the type of an image
- 21.9. sndhdr— Determine type of sound file
- 21.10. ossaudiodev— Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
 
- 21.1. 
- 22. Internationalization
- 23. Program Frameworks
- 24. Graphical User Interfaces with Tk- 24.1. Tkinter— Python interface to Tcl/Tk
- 24.2. ttk— Tk themed widgets
- 24.3. Tix— Extension widgets for Tk
- 24.4. ScrolledText— Scrolled Text Widget
- 24.5. turtle— Turtle graphics for Tk- 24.5.1. Introduction
- 24.5.2. Overview over available Turtle and Screen methods
- 24.5.3. Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
- 24.5.4. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
- 24.5.5. The public classes of the module turtle
- 24.5.6. Help and configuration
- 24.5.7. Demo scripts
 
- 24.6. IDLE- 24.6.1. Menus- 24.6.1.1. File menu (Shell and Editor)
- 24.6.1.2. Edit menu (Shell and Editor)
- 24.6.1.3. Format menu (Editor window only)
- 24.6.1.4. Run menu (Editor window only)
- 24.6.1.5. Shell menu (Shell window only)
- 24.6.1.6. Debug menu (Shell window only)
- 24.6.1.7. Options menu (Shell and Editor)
- 24.6.1.8. Window menu (Shell and Editor)
- 24.6.1.9. Help menu (Shell and Editor)
- 24.6.1.10. Context Menus
 
- 24.6.2. Editing and navigation
- 24.6.3. Startup and code execution
- 24.6.4. Help and preferences
 
- 24.6.1. Menus
- 24.7. Other Graphical User Interface Packages
 
- 24.1. 
- 25. Development Tools- 25.1. pydoc— Documentation generator and online help system
- 25.2. doctest— Test interactive Python examples
- 25.3. unittest— Unit testing framework
- 25.4. 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
- 25.5. test— Regression tests package for Python
- 25.6. test.support— Utility functions for tests
 
- 25.1. 
- 26. Debugging and Profiling
- 27. Software Packaging and Distribution
- 28. Python Runtime Services- 28.1. sys— System-specific parameters and functions
- 28.2. sysconfig— Provide access to Python’s configuration information
- 28.3. __builtin__— Built-in objects
- 28.4. future_builtins— Python 3 builtins
- 28.5. __main__— Top-level script environment
- 28.6. warnings— Warning control
- 28.7. contextlib— Utilities forwith-statement contexts
- 28.8. abc— Abstract Base Classes
- 28.9. atexit— Exit handlers
- 28.10. traceback— Print or retrieve a stack traceback
- 28.11. __future__— Future statement definitions
- 28.12. gc— Garbage Collector interface
- 28.13. inspect— Inspect live objects
- 28.14. site— Site-specific configuration hook
- 28.15. user— User-specific configuration hook
- 28.16. fpectl— Floating point exception control
 
- 28.1. 
- 29. Custom Python Interpreters
- 30. Restricted Execution
- 31. Importing Modules- 31.1. imp— Access theimportinternals
- 31.2. importlib— Convenience wrappers for__import__()
- 31.3. imputil— Import utilities
- 31.4. zipimport— Import modules from Zip archives
- 31.5. pkgutil— Package extension utility
- 31.6. modulefinder— Find modules used by a script
- 31.7. runpy— Locating and executing Python modules
 
- 31.1. 
- 32. Python Language Services- 32.1. parser— Access Python parse trees
- 32.2. ast— Abstract Syntax Trees
- 32.3. symtable— Access to the compiler’s symbol tables
- 32.4. symbol— Constants used with Python parse trees
- 32.5. token— Constants used with Python parse trees
- 32.6. keyword— Testing for Python keywords
- 32.7. tokenize— Tokenizer for Python source
- 32.8. tabnanny— Detection of ambiguous indentation
- 32.9. pyclbr— Python class browser support
- 32.10. py_compile— Compile Python source files
- 32.11. compileall— Byte-compile Python libraries
- 32.12. dis— Disassembler for Python bytecode
- 32.13. pickletools— Tools for pickle developers
 
- 32.1. 
- 33. Python compiler package
- 34. Miscellaneous Services
- 35. MS Windows Specific Services
- 36. Unix Specific Services- 36.1. posix— The most common POSIX system calls
- 36.2. pwd— The password database
- 36.3. spwd— The shadow password database
- 36.4. grp— The group database
- 36.5. crypt— Function to check Unix passwords
- 36.6. dl— Call C functions in shared objects
- 36.7. termios— POSIX style tty control
- 36.8. tty— Terminal control functions
- 36.9. pty— Pseudo-terminal utilities
- 36.10. fcntl— Thefcntlandioctlsystem calls
- 36.11. pipes— Interface to shell pipelines
- 36.12. posixfile— File-like objects with locking support
- 36.13. resource— Resource usage information
- 36.14. nis— Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
- 36.15. syslog— Unix syslog library routines
- 36.16. commands— Utilities for running commands
 
- 36.1. 
- 37. Mac OS X specific services- 37.1. ic— Access to the Mac OS X Internet Config
- 37.2. MacOS— Access to Mac OS interpreter features
- 37.3. macostools— Convenience routines for file manipulation
- 37.4. findertools— The finder’s Apple Events interface
- 37.5. EasyDialogs— Basic Macintosh dialogs
- 37.6. FrameWork— Interactive application framework
- 37.7. autoGIL— Global Interpreter Lock handling in event loops
- 37.8. Mac OS Toolbox Modules- 37.8.1. Carbon.AE— Apple Events
- 37.8.2. Carbon.AH— Apple Help
- 37.8.3. Carbon.App— Appearance Manager
- 37.8.4. Carbon.Appearance— Appearance Manager constants
- 37.8.5. Carbon.CF— Core Foundation
- 37.8.6. Carbon.CG— Core Graphics
- 37.8.7. Carbon.CarbonEvt— Carbon Event Manager
- 37.8.8. Carbon.CarbonEvents— Carbon Event Manager constants
- 37.8.9. Carbon.Cm— Component Manager
- 37.8.10. Carbon.Components— Component Manager constants
- 37.8.11. Carbon.ControlAccessor— Control Manager accssors
- 37.8.12. Carbon.Controls— Control Manager constants
- 37.8.13. Carbon.CoreFounation— CoreFounation constants
- 37.8.14. Carbon.CoreGraphics— CoreGraphics constants
- 37.8.15. Carbon.Ctl— Control Manager
- 37.8.16. Carbon.Dialogs— Dialog Manager constants
- 37.8.17. Carbon.Dlg— Dialog Manager
- 37.8.18. Carbon.Drag— Drag and Drop Manager
- 37.8.19. Carbon.Dragconst— Drag and Drop Manager constants
- 37.8.20. Carbon.Events— Event Manager constants
- 37.8.21. Carbon.Evt— Event Manager
- 37.8.22. Carbon.File— File Manager
- 37.8.23. Carbon.Files— File Manager constants
- 37.8.24. Carbon.Fm— Font Manager
- 37.8.25. Carbon.Folder— Folder Manager
- 37.8.26. Carbon.Folders— Folder Manager constants
- 37.8.27. Carbon.Fonts— Font Manager constants
- 37.8.28. Carbon.Help— Help Manager
- 37.8.29. Carbon.IBCarbon— Carbon InterfaceBuilder
- 37.8.30. Carbon.IBCarbonRuntime— Carbon InterfaceBuilder constants
- 37.8.31. Carbon.Icn— Carbon Icon Manager
- 37.8.32. Carbon.Icons— Carbon Icon Manager constants
- 37.8.33. Carbon.Launch— Carbon Launch Services
- 37.8.34. Carbon.LaunchServices— Carbon Launch Services constants
- 37.8.35. Carbon.List— List Manager
- 37.8.36. Carbon.Lists— List Manager constants
- 37.8.37. Carbon.MacHelp— Help Manager constants
- 37.8.38. Carbon.MediaDescr— Parsers and generators for Quicktime Media descriptors
- 37.8.39. Carbon.Menu— Menu Manager
- 37.8.40. Carbon.Menus— Menu Manager constants
- 37.8.41. Carbon.Mlte— MultiLingual Text Editor
- 37.8.42. Carbon.OSA— Carbon OSA Interface
- 37.8.43. Carbon.OSAconst— Carbon OSA Interface constants
- 37.8.44. Carbon.QDOffscreen— QuickDraw Offscreen constants
- 37.8.45. Carbon.Qd— QuickDraw
- 37.8.46. Carbon.Qdoffs— QuickDraw Offscreen
- 37.8.47. Carbon.Qt— QuickTime
- 37.8.48. Carbon.QuickDraw— QuickDraw constants
- 37.8.49. Carbon.QuickTime— QuickTime constants
- 37.8.50. Carbon.Res— Resource Manager and Handles
- 37.8.51. Carbon.Resources— Resource Manager and Handles constants
- 37.8.52. Carbon.Scrap— Scrap Manager
- 37.8.53. Carbon.Snd— Sound Manager
- 37.8.54. Carbon.Sound— Sound Manager constants
- 37.8.55. Carbon.TE— TextEdit
- 37.8.56. Carbon.TextEdit— TextEdit constants
- 37.8.57. Carbon.Win— Window Manager
- 37.8.58. Carbon.Windows— Window Manager constants
 
- 37.8.1. 
- 37.9. ColorPicker— Color selection dialog
 
- 37.1. 
- 38. MacPython OSA Modules
- 39. SGI IRIX Specific Services- 39.1. al— Audio functions on the SGI
- 39.2. AL— Constants used with thealmodule
- 39.3. cd— CD-ROM access on SGI systems
- 39.4. fl— FORMS library for graphical user interfaces
- 39.5. FL— Constants used with theflmodule
- 39.6. flp— Functions for loading stored FORMS designs
- 39.7. fm— Font Manager interface
- 39.8. gl— Graphics Library interface
- 39.9. DEVICE— Constants used with theglmodule
- 39.10. GL— Constants used with theglmodule
- 39.11. imgfile— Support for SGI imglib files
- 39.12. jpeg— Read and write JPEG files
 
- 39.1. 
- 40. SunOS Specific Services
- 41. Undocumented Modules- 41.1. Miscellaneous useful utilities
- 41.2. Platform specific modules
- 41.3. Multimedia
- 41.4. Undocumented Mac OS modules- 41.4.1. applesingle— AppleSingle decoder
- 41.4.2. buildtools— Helper module for BuildApplet and Friends
- 41.4.3. cfmfile— Code Fragment Resource module
- 41.4.4. icopen— Internet Config replacement foropen()
- 41.4.5. macerrors— Mac OS Errors
- 41.4.6. macresource— Locate script resources
- 41.4.7. Nav— NavServices calls
- 41.4.8. PixMapWrapper— Wrapper for PixMap objects
- 41.4.9. videoreader— Read QuickTime movies
- 41.4.10. W— Widgets built onFrameWork
 
- 41.4.1. 
- 41.5. Obsolete
- 41.6. SGI-specific Extension modules
 
 
- Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter- 1. Extending Python with C or C++- 1.1. A Simple Example
- 1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
- 1.3. Back to the Example
- 1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function
- 1.5. Compilation and Linkage
- 1.6. Calling Python Functions from C
- 1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
- 1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
- 1.9. Building Arbitrary Values
- 1.10. Reference Counts
- 1.11. Writing Extensions in C++
- 1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module
 
- 2. Defining New Types
- 3. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils
- 4. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
- 5. Embedding Python in Another Application
 
- 1. Extending Python with C or C++
- Python/C API Reference Manual- Introduction
- The Very High Level Layer
- Reference Counting
- Exception Handling
- Utilities
- Abstract Objects Layer
- Concrete Objects Layer
- Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
- Memory Management
- Object Implementation Support
 
- Distributing Python Modules
- Installing Python Modules
- Python HOWTOs- Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3- The Short Explanation
- Details- Drop support for Python 2.6 and older
- Make sure you specify the proper version support in your setup.pyfile
- Have good test coverage
- Learn the differences between Python 2 & 3
- Update your code
- Prevent compatibility regressions
- Check which dependencies block your transition
- Update your setup.pyfile to denote Python 3 compatibility
- Use continuous integration to stay compatible
- Consider using optional static type checking
 
 
- Porting Extension Modules to Python 3
- Curses Programming with Python
- Descriptor HowTo Guide
- Idioms and Anti-Idioms in Python
- Functional Programming HOWTO
- Logging HOWTO
- Logging Cookbook- Using logging in multiple modules
- Logging from multiple threads
- Multiple handlers and formatters
- Logging to multiple destinations
- Configuration server example
- Sending and receiving logging events across a network
- Adding contextual information to your logging output
- Logging to a single file from multiple processes
- Using file rotation
- An example dictionary-based configuration
- Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler
- Implementing structured logging
- Customizing handlers with dictConfig()
- Configuring filters with dictConfig()
- Customized exception formatting
- Speaking logging messages
- Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally
- Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration
- Using a context manager for selective logging
 
- Regular Expression HOWTO
- Socket Programming HOWTO
- Sorting HOW TO
- Unicode HOWTO
- HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using urllib2
- HOWTO Use Python in the web
- Argparse Tutorial
 
- Porting Python 2 Code to Python 3
- Python Frequently Asked Questions- General Python FAQ
- Programming FAQ
- Design and History FAQ- Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?
- Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?
- Why are floating point calculations so inaccurate?
- Why are Python strings immutable?
- Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?
- Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?
- Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?
- Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?
- How fast are exceptions?
- Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?
- Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?
- Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?
- Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?
- How does Python manage memory?
- Why isn’t all memory freed when Python exits?
- Why are there separate tuple and list data types?
- How are lists implemented in CPython?
- How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?
- Why must dictionary keys be immutable?
- Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?
- How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?
- Why is there no goto?
- Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?
- Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?
- Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?
- Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?
 
- Library and Extension FAQ
- Extending/Embedding FAQ- Can I create my own functions in C?
- Can I create my own functions in C++?
- Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?
- How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?
- How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?
- How do I extract C values from a Python object?
- How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?
- How do I call an object’s method from C?
- How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?
- How do I access a module written in Python from C?
- How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?
- I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?
- How do I debug an extension?
- I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?
- What does “SystemError: _PyImport_FixupExtension: module yourmodule not loaded” mean?
- How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?
- How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?
- Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?
- When importing module X, why do I get “undefined symbol: PyUnicodeUCS2*”?
 
- Python on Windows FAQ- How do I run a Python program under Windows?
- How do I make Python scripts executable?
- Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?
- How do I make an executable from a Python script?
- Is a *.pydfile the same as a DLL?
- How can I embed Python into a Windows application?
- How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?
- How do I check for a keypress without blocking?
- How do I emulate os.kill() in Windows?
- How do I extract the downloaded documentation on Windows?
 
- Graphic User Interface FAQ
- “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ
 
- Glossary
- About these documents
- Reporting Bugs
- Copyright
- History and License
